Cancer Glossary

A

Adjuvant Therapy

Preventive treatment given after cancer surgery to destroy any microscopic cancer cells left in the body and reduce the risk of recurrence.

Anaemia

A shortage of haemoglobin or red blood cells. Common during cancer treatment, it causes fatigue and weakness.

Antibody

A protein produced by the immune system that recognises and binds foreign substances. Monoclonal antibodies are used in cancer treatment.

Autoimmune Reaction

When treatments such as immunotherapy overstimulate the immune system and the body begins to attack its own healthy tissue.

B

Benign

A non-cancerous tumour. These growths do not spread to surrounding tissue and are usually not life-threatening.

Biopsy

Taking a sample of suspicious tissue for examination under a microscope. It is required for a definitive cancer diagnosis.

BRCA1 / BRCA2

Gene mutations that raise the inherited risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Carriers have a substantially increased risk.

Brachytherapy

A form of radiotherapy in which a radioactive source is placed directly inside or next to the tumour. Also called internal radiation.

C

CA-125

A tumour marker that rises particularly in ovarian cancer. Used to assess treatment response and follow the disease.

Cachexia

Loss of appetite with marked muscle and weight loss, caused by the metabolic changes that accompany cancer.

Carcinogen

An environmental, chemical or physical agent that causes cancer or raises the risk of it — tobacco smoke, asbestos, UV radiation and so on.

Carcinoma

Cancer arising from epithelial tissue such as skin or the lining of internal organs. Most cancers are carcinomas.

Carcinoma in Situ

Early-stage cancer that has not yet spread beyond where it started. When treated, the chance of full recovery is very high.

CEA (Carcinoembryonic Antigen)

A tumour marker that can rise in some cancers, most notably colorectal cancer.

Chemotherapy

Drug treatment used to kill cancer cells or stop them growing. It targets rapidly dividing cells.

Clinical Trial

Scientific research carried out with volunteer patients to test the safety and effectiveness of a new drug or treatment method.

ctDNA (Circulating Tumour DNA)

Fragments of tumour DNA circulating in the blood. Detected by liquid biopsy, they give information about the genetics of the tumour.

Cycle

One round of treatment in a chemotherapy protocol, given at set intervals. "Six cycles of chemotherapy" means six such rounds.

D

Desmoplastic

A firm, fibrous tissue reaction that forms around tumour cells. It matters for diagnosis and staging.

Distant Metastasis

Spread of cancer from the organ where it started to distant organs through the lymph or the bloodstream — for example from lung to brain.

DNA Repair Genes

Genes that correct damage to genetic material. Mutations in these genes (BRCA, MMR and others) increase susceptibility to cancer.

Dose-Dense Chemotherapy

A more intensive chemotherapy protocol in which the interval between cycles is shortened, as long as side effects can be tolerated.

E

Endoscopy / Colonoscopy

Examining the inner surface of digestive organs with a flexible camera tube, and taking biopsies where needed.

Excision

Surgical removal of a tissue or organ.

Extravasation

When a chemotherapy drug given intravenously leaks into the surrounding tissue and causes tissue damage.

F

Febrile Neutropenia

A high fever in a patient whose white cell count is low. It requires urgent medical attention.

G

Genetic Testing

DNA analysis carried out to establish inherited cancer risk. It detects mutations such as BRCA and Lynch syndrome.

Glioblastoma (GBM)

The most aggressive type of primary brain tumour, arising from brain tissue.

Grade

A histological classification showing how closely cancer cells resemble normal cells. A higher grade indicates a more aggressive tumour.

Gynecologic Oncology

The speciality concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of cancers of the female reproductive organs — ovary, uterus, cervix and others.

H

HER2

A protein found in excess in some breast cancers. HER2-positive cancers can be treated with targeted drugs such as trastuzumab.

Histopathology

The process of reaching a definitive diagnosis by examining tissue taken at biopsy or surgery under a microscope.

Hormone Therapy

Treatment that blocks the production or the effect of hormones in hormone-sensitive cancers such as breast and prostate cancer.

Hospice

Palliative care aimed at improving quality of life in patients with advanced disease.

I

Immunotherapy

Treatment that strengthens or redirects the immune system so it fights the cancer. Checkpoint inhibitors belong to this group.

Infusion

Giving drugs slowly through a vein. Chemotherapy is usually delivered as an infusion.

L

Leukaemia

Cancer of the blood and bone marrow, characterised by uncontrolled production of white blood cells.

Liquid Biopsy

A minimally invasive test that detects tumour DNA, tumour cells or other biomarkers in the blood.

Local Invasion

Spread of cancer cells into the deeper tissue of the organ where they started, or into immediately neighbouring organs.

Lymph Node

Small glands that form part of the immune system. Cancer often spreads to lymph nodes, which affects staging.

Lymphoma

Cancer arising from the lymphatic system, divided into two main groups: Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Lynch Syndrome

A genetic condition that raises the inherited risk of colorectal, endometrial and other cancers. It results from mutations in DNA repair genes.

M

Malignant

A cancerous tumour: a mass that can grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body (metastasise).

Metastasis

Spread of cancer from the organ where it started to another part of the body. The liver, lung, bone and brain are the most common sites.

Monoclonal Antibody

A laboratory-produced antibody that binds to specific targets on cancer cells. Trastuzumab and bevacizumab are examples.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A diagnostic method that builds detailed images of the body using a magnetic field and radio waves.

Mutation

A change in the genetic code that triggers or drives the development of cancer.

Myeloma (Multiple Myeloma)

A blood cancer marked by the uncontrolled multiplication of plasma cells in the bone marrow.

N

Neoadjuvant Therapy

Treatment given before surgery to shrink the tumour and make the operation easier.

Neutropenia

A fall in the number of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell. Common as a side effect of chemotherapy, it increases the risk of infection.

O

Oncologist

A doctor specialising in cancer treatment. A medical oncologist manages drug treatment, a radiation oncologist manages radiotherapy.

Oncology

The branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It covers medical, radiation and surgical oncology.

P

Palliative Care

A treatment approach that aims to control symptoms and improve quality of life rather than cure the disease.

Pathology Report

The formal medical report prepared after examining biopsy or surgical tissue, containing the type, stage and molecular features of the tumour.

PET/CT

A combination of positron emission tomography and computed tomography. It shows the metabolic activity and location of cancer cells.

Phenotype / Genotype

The outwardly expressed biological features of a tumour (phenotype) and the map of its DNA and mutations (genotype).

Port (Port Catheter)

A permanent vascular access device placed under the skin of the chest, used for chemotherapy and blood sampling.

Prognosis

A prediction of the likely course and outcome of the disease. Stage, grade and tumour features all influence it.

Prophylactic Surgery

Removing or treating tissue at high risk of cancer as a precaution, before cancer develops — for example a preventive mastectomy in BRCA carriers.

PSA (Prostate Specific Antigen)

A tumour marker secreted by prostate tissue, used in prostate cancer screening and follow-up.

Q

Quality of Life

Overall wellbeing, covering physical health, psychological state and social functioning. It is an important goal in cancer treatment.

R

Radiofrequency Ablation (RFA)

A minimally invasive method that destroys cancer cells by applying heat energy to the tumour tissue.

Radiotherapy

Treatment that aims to kill cancer cells using high-energy X-rays or other forms of radiation.

Recurrence

The reappearance of cancer after treatment. It may be local (in the same area) or distant (metastatic).

Remission

The complete (full remission) or partial (partial remission) disappearance of the signs and symptoms of cancer.

Resection

Surgical removal of a tumour or of part of an organ.

S

Sarcoma

A group of rare cancers arising from connective tissue such as bone, muscle or fat.

Sentinel Lymph Node

The first lymph node that lymph fluid from a tumour drains into. It is biopsied in breast cancer to assess spread.

Side Effect

An unwanted effect of treatment. Chemotherapy can cause nausea, hair loss and fatigue among others.

Stage

The classification system showing how far cancer has spread in the body. Usually staged 1 to 4; stage 1 is early and stage 4 advanced disease.

Systemic Therapy

Treatments that reach the whole body through the circulation: chemotherapy, immunotherapy and targeted therapies.

T

Targeted Therapy

Drugs that act on specific molecules driving the growth of cancer cells. They cause less damage to healthy cells.

TNM Staging

The international system used to stage cancer. T: tumour size, N: lymph node involvement, M: presence of metastasis.

Treatment Resistance

When cancer cells adapt over time to the chemotherapy or targeted drug being used and stop responding to it.

Tumour

A mass formed by abnormal cell growth. It may be benign or malignant.

Tumour Markers

Substances measurable in blood or tissue that indicate the presence of cancer or the response to treatment (CA-125, CEA, PSA and others).

V

Vascular Invasion

When tumour cells enter blood vessel structures and reach the circulation. It increases the risk of metastasis.

Z

Zoledronic Acid (Bisphosphonates)

A group of drugs used in bone metastasis to prevent bone breakdown and strengthen bone structure.